Rhythms of Resilience: The Enduring Legacy of Afro-Latina Musicians in American Music
Machito and Graciella Grillo, Glen Island Casino, New York, N.Y., ca. July 1947. Photo by William P. Gottlieb. Library of Congress, via Wikimedia Commons.
If you were to ask the average American to name a notable Afro-Latina musician who has made significant contributions to American music, Celia Cruz would likely come to mind. However, despite the profound impact that Black women from Latin America have had on American music, this fact remains largely unknown to most Americans. In some respects, it can be challenging to differentiate between distinct influences since, ultimately, our African heritage is at the core, and we express our Africanness regardless of where our ancestors landed. Nevertheless, let us engage in a conversation about the interplay between Afro-Latin and innate African influences, recognizing the complexities and nuances involved.
From the complex harmonies of jazz to the soulful melodies of blues and syncopated rhythms of Afro-Cuban music which led to Latin jazz, Black Latina musicians emerged as trailblazers, shaping and defining these genres with their talent and undeniable contributions. When it comes to jazz, I personally feel like it’s important to remember as an American pastime and innately Black. You can’t think about jazz without thinking about unadulterated Blackness and within the rich tapestry of jazz's evolution, notable Black Latinas have played transformative roles, among them Graciela Grillo, known simply as Graciela. Her contributions encompassed the introduction of mambo into the realm of jazz, subsequently intertwining salsa with Afro-Cuban jazz as the genre underwent sonic transformations.
Graciela, often hailed as the "First lady of Latin jazz," was born on August 23, 1915, in the vibrant city of Havana, Cuba, nestled within the Afro-Cuban neighborhood of Jesús María. At the tender age of 17, Graciela embarked on an historical musical journey by joining the renowned Anacaona band in 1933. Among the remarkable repertoire of musical gems that graced her vocals during her time with Anacaona were notable titles such as "Maleficio," "Bésame aquí," “Algo bueno,” “Después que sufras,” “Amor olvidable,” and "Un poco más." These timeless recordings, dating back to 1937, were immortalized in Septeto Anacaona & Ciro Rimac 1936-1937, which was released under the Harlequin label. It was in 1937 that Graciela first set foot in New York, marking the beginning of a transformative chapter in her career. Shortly thereafter, she joined forces with her adoptive brother, Frank "Machito" Grillo, to form the acclaimed ensemble known as Machito & the Afro-Cubans.
Machito & The Afro-Cubanos defied the oppressive confines of racial segregation by playing for integrated audiences in a variety of nightclubs and dance venues. Their magnetic performances changed the cultural landscape of New York City. From the halls of La Conga and Park Plaza, where exclusivity was the norm, to the hallowed jazz venues such as The Royal Roost, Bop City, and Birdland, Machito & The Afro-Cubanos graced each stage with their contagious rhythms. They effortlessly navigated the vibrancy of Harlem's Apollo Theater and the iconic Savoy Ballroom, igniting the spirits of all who had the pleasure of witnessing their electrifying performances. In these legendary venues, Machito & The Afro-Cubanos not only entertained, but also became catalysts for change, pushing the boundaries of acceptance and equality through the power of their music.
Despite her remarkable achievements and musical successes, Graciela faced relentless sexism throughout her career. Even with popular hits like "Si Si, No No" resonating with audiences, her talent was often overshadowed by a pervasive belief that the stage belonged solely to men.
In a candid interview with Latin Beat magazine, Graciela vividly recounted a distressing incident that illustrated the discrimination she encountered.
“We were the first Cuban band to play at the Teatro Apolo. When I entered the stage, the audience began to applaud and shout ‘Si Si, No No.’ The owner asked Mario ‘How do these people know this girl?’ Mario replied, ‘She's been on the scene for a long time.’ Then he told me that I would not open the show. The band would go out with Machito, he told Mario, and [after that] then I was able to go out and I sang three or four numbers. That's the truth!”
This degrading treatment illuminates the harsh reality of the pervasive sexism that persisted in the music industry, challenging Graciela's resilience and unwavering devotion to her craft.
In 1963, Graciela recorded her first solo album. Backed by the renowned Machito Orchestra, her album titled Esta Es Graciela (Tico) showcased a remarkable catalog of songs that left an unforgettable impression on listeners. Top tracks included the spirited “Ay, José”—a piece reminiscent of her previous hit “Si Si, No No”—as well as captivating compositions like "Mi querido Santi Cló," "El gato con tres patas," and "Sobando el son," among others.
In 2006, she was honored with the Latin Jazz USA Chico O'Farrill Lifetime Achievement Award. Graciela died in New York in 2010 at the age of 94 surrounded by her loving friends and family.
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Tania Maria, an Afro-Brazilian artist, stands out as another Afro-Latina who made significant contributions to American jazz. Born in Sao Luis, Brazil, Tania Maria's musical journey began at the age of 7 when her father encouraged her to learn the piano so she could join his jam sessions. Tania flourished and by the age of 13, she emerged as a leader in her father's band, captivating audiences with their performances at dances, clubs, and on the radio.
Tania Maria performing on tour. Author and date unknown. Source: Facebook.
In 1969, Tania Maria released her first album, Apresentamos, in Brazil, which was followed by Olha Quem Chega in 1971. However, it was her relocation to Paris in the 1970s that marked her breakout success. Doors to new opportunities and exposed her to an international jazz scene.
During her time in Paris, Tania Maria's talent and unique musical style garnered attention, leading her to collaborate with esteemed musicians such as percussionist Paco Sery and composer/arranger Michel Colombier. Her fusion of jazz and Brazilian rhythms found an enthusiastic audience, in stark contrast to her native Brazil, where some perceived her incorporation of American styles as a departure from her roots.
In her own words she says she plays percussion on the piano:
“We didn’t have much money for records, but I still heard a lot. Nat King Cole was considered a crooner, but to me he was first of all a great pianist. I was 11 or 12 and I wanted to someday play like him. And he had such elegance. I always thought music was something very noble, and he thrilled me.”
Consequently, she made the decision to leave Brazil behind and pursue her musical career in France, later extending her artistic journey to New York.
Throughout her career, Tania Maria recorded numerous albums that showcased her innovative approach to music, earning her international acclaim. Her distinct vocals, dynamic piano playing, and incorporation of Afro-Brazilian rhythms breathed new life into the jazz scene, captivating audiences with a fresh and exhilarating sound.
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Cuban salsa singer Celia Cruz (1924-2003), circa 1970. Photo by Michael Ochs.
Celia Cruz stands out as one of the most globally recognized Afro-Latina musicians, earning her the title “Queen of Salsa.” Her illustrious career took off in the early 1950s when she joined the legendary orchestra La Sonora Matancera, allowing her exceptional talent to be showcased to audiences worldwide.
Sometimes, a single step aside can open the path for someone else to stride forward. Graciela recalls an intriguing moment from the past, where Celia Cruz, the renowned singer, reaped the benefits of an opportunity that Graciela herself had chosen to walk away from back in the 1960s:
“A Fania agent came to hire me, but the lawyer was a bandit. Mario told him that the contract was inappropriate. If he wanted to sign me he had to reach ‘an agreement, worthy of someone like me.’ I had met Celia Cruz in Cuba, she arrived here around 1960. Do you know why she recorded for the Fania label? Because I wouldn't do it. She wasn’t doing much in the music scene, so she took the offer.”
In a pivotal move, on July 15, 1960, she made the decision to leave Cuba and relocate to the United States, where she continued to make a historical mark on the music industry. Collaborating with maestro Tito Puente, Cruz recorded several albums that not only captivated the Anglo and European audiences but also propelled salsa music to new heights.
On her most famous phrase:
“It started when we were dining with friends in a restaurant and the waiter asked if I wanted coffee with or without sugar...and I answered: azúuuuucar, because it was obvious I couldn’t drink Cuban coffee without it. That night during the show, I told the story and the audience died laughing. Later, the public started requesting that I tell them the story about the sugar... Until I grew tired of it, and before they asked I came out screaming: ‘Azúcar’ ... I never told the story again, but kept repeating the word.”
Over the course of her remarkable artistic journey spanning more than half a century, the Queen of Salsa recorded approximately seventy albums and produced a staggering catalog of eight hundred songs. Her immense talent and popularity were acknowledged through twenty-three gold records and five Grammy awards. However, even more profound were the countless tours and concerts she had, enchanting audiences globally and firmly establishing herself as a revered ambassador of Cuban music on the world stage. Yet, Celia Cruz's impact stretches far beyond being an ambassador of Cuban music. She holds a unique and tangible position as one of the most prominent Afro-Latinas in the realm of entertainment.
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Lupe Victoria Yolí Raymond was born in Santiago de Cuba on December 23, 1939 (or 1936). The renowned Queen of Latin Soul grew up hard and fast and similarly to Celia Cruz she was a teacher before she began her music career. It was at the intimate Havana nightclub, La Red where she first showcased her own act to a distinguished clientele of foreigners. Among her fans were luminaries that included Ernest Hemingway, Tennessee Williams, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, and Marlon Brando.
In 1960, La Lupe recorded her debut album, titled Con el diablo en el cuerpo, under the Discuba label, the Cuban subsidiary of RCA Victor. Backed by two different groups led by Felipe Dulzaides and Eddy Gaytán, her powerful and soulful voice mesmerized listeners. However, it was her electrifying performance on Puerto Rican television that caused a stir, with her vibrant stage presence reportedly shocking some viewers. Deeply connected to her spiritual beliefs, La Lupe was a devoted practitioner of Lucumí, incorporating certain ritualistic elements into her performances, including symbolic gestures, invocations, and references to deities.
In 1962, La Lupe's life took an unexpected turn when she was exiled to Mexico. Determined to rebuild her career, she approached the legendary Celia Cruz seeking her support to secure work opportunities. Celia recommended her to Mongo Santamaría in New York. The vibrant streets of New York City became La Lupe's new stage as she graced the cabaret scene at a venue called La Berraca, heralding a fresh chapter in her career.
Over the next five years, she unleashed her creative abilities, recording more than ten records. One of the captivating facets of La Lupe's music was her profound connection to African spiritual modalities, in which she became “possessed” on stage. This is one of the aspects that led to her leaving Cuba, as her performances were not commercially accepted.
Photo of La Lupe. Author, date, and location unknown.
As she navigated the New York music scene, La Lupe connected with renowned musicians and composers, further solidifying her place in the industry. She worked with figures such as Tito Puente, Johnny Pacheco, and Mongo Santamaria, collaborating on hit recordings that showcased her range and artistic versatility. Her breakout moment came with the release of the album Puro Teatro in 1968. This song became her signature piece, showcasing her ability to convey deep emotions through her voice and stage presence. "Puro Teatro" propelled La Lupe to new heights of fame, cementing her status as the Queen of Latin Soul.
In 1978, financial discrepancies led to La Lupe urging Fania Records to stop handling her music with an intention to find a better label. This proved to be difficult because Fania not only dominated her music scene, but also all promotions, nightclubs, shows, and theaters, etc. In the 1980s, after being dropped by Fania Records, La Lupe made the decision to retire, partly for religious reasons as she became an evangelical Christian. However, her untimely passing due to a heart attack left a void in the music world and today she rests in peace at Saint Raymond's Cemetery in the Bronx.
Although La Lupe did not receive widespread recognition or numerous accolades during her lifetime, her impact and influence on Latin music have not been forgotten. In a tribute, the city of New York posthumously honored her in 2002 by renaming East 140th Street in the Bronx as La Lupe Way. This gesture serves as a lasting reminder of her mark on the music and cultural landscape of the city she called home. Additionally, La Lupe's legacy lives on through her work being celebrated and honored in various films and television shows.
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Elza Gomes da Conceição, was born on June 23, 1930, in Padre Miguel, Rio de Janeiro and faced challenges from a young age, but considered her childhood a happy one. Yet, at the age of twenty-one, she found herself widowed, shouldering the responsibility of raising her five children single-handedly. However, amidst these hardships, Elza desired to be a singer.
In 1958, Soares embarked on a transformative journey, touring Argentina for eight months alongside Mercedes Batista. It was during this time that she garnered popularity with her debut single, "Se Acaso Você Chegasse." With this song, she infused scat singing, reminiscent of the great Louis Armstrong, seamlessly blending jazz with samba. Interestingly, Elza revealed that she had little exposure to American music during this period.
Driven by her passion, Elza relocated to São Paulo, where she captivated audiences in theaters and nightclubs with her distinctively husky voice that would soon become her trademark. While working on her second album, "A Bossa Negra," she connected with Louis Armstrong during her visit to Chile as Brazil's representative in the 1962 FIFA World Cup.
In the 1970s, Elza embarked on a transformative journey, touring both the United States and Europe, sharing her exceptional talent with international audiences. The culmination of her career came in 2000 when the BBC in London bestowed upon her the prestigious title of Best Singer of the Millennium.
Elza Soares in concert. Photo by Victor Vieira.
Whilst Elza had much success, her life was also marked by turmoil that directly affected her career. She began a relationship with Brazilian soccer star Garrincha, which led to her being vilified by Brazilian society as they accused her of breaking up his marriage. The relationship wasn’t accepted, with his friends calling her a ‘witch.’ Garrincha and Elza remained married for 16 years and shared one son together. However, their relationship was plagued by the burdens of Garrincha's battle with alcoholism, which strained their marriage. Elza, bearing witness to the destructive effects of his addiction, found herself pleading with bars to withhold serving him, desperate to shield him from himself. They eventually separated, with Garrincha dying of cirrhosis, which devastated Elza.
Elza Soares' journey exemplifies resilience, determination, and an unwavering dedication to her craft. Her musical legacy continues to inspire and uplift generations, as she remains an iconic figure in the realm of music, cherished for her extraordinary contributions to the art form. She died at her residence in Rio de Janeiro, on January 20, 2022, at the age of 91.
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A common thread that unites Graciela, Celia Cruz, La Lupe, and Elza Soares is the direct impact that their respective government leaders had on their musical careers and livelihoods. These women found themselves navigating oppressive political landscapes that directly hindered their ability to pursue their artistry and sustain themselves financially. They were essentially forced out, and sought opportunities beyond the borders of their birthplaces.
It's also important to note how these musicians were often used as pawns against each other by white men in positions of power. For instance, when Graciela's lawyer advocated for her, Fania Records, a label notorious for exploiting Black artists, signed Celia Cruz for a significantly lower fee. These instances highlight how Black Latinas were consistently undervalued and financially undercut, even when their talent and popularity were undeniable.
Meanwhile, La Lupe was cut from Fania Records during the height of her career. This plunged her into a state of personal and professional despair, yet the label profited immensely from her talent. The treatment of these extraordinary women not only exposes the inherent injustices within the music industry but also serves as a stark reminder that being a token Black woman in predominantly white spaces does not equate to empowerment. Instead, it is often a deceptive tactic giving Black people “representation” while enriching the pockets of white men.
Yet these pioneering women, often finding themselves the sole representatives of Blackness in music's defining moments, shattered barriers and challenged societal norms. Their journeys expose the lie of tokenism and the need for genuine inclusivity and equitable opportunities for Black women that still exists today. Their stories resonate as powerful reminders of the resilience, talent, and determination that have shaped the landscape of American music, despite the oppressive forces that sought to suppress their voices.
These trailblazing women not only faced the challenges of sexism but also battled against extreme anti-blackness, defying all odds to profoundly shape multiple American music genres. Despite their immense contributions, Black Latinas often went unrecognized for their groundbreaking work in their lifetimes. However, the tide is turning, and more people are discovering and celebrating their legacies today. Their contemporaries continue to propel American musical genres forward with unwavering dedication and passion. From the infectious hooks of Nitty Scott to Amara La Negra's bold take on modern reggaeton, the future of Afro-Latinas' legacy in music is undoubtedly in great hands. These women are breathing new life into the industry, pushing boundaries, and creating groundbreaking musical experiences.
The landscape of music has undergone multiple transformations over the years. Genres have become more fluid, interweaving and evolving beyond their original boundaries. Today's pioneers, such as Ibeyi, Daymé, and Goyo, are masterfully blending and experimenting with musical styles, resulting in the creation of fresh rhythms and iconic moments that will shape music history. It is imperative that we celebrate these extraordinary women in their lifetimes, ensuring that they no longer have to wait for the well-deserved tributes and acclaim that they have earned. Their legacies deserve to be acknowledged and cherished by audiences around the world. Let us honor these Black women who have enriched the American music industry and paved the way for future generations to follow in their footsteps.
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Reference List
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de Langenhagen, Stéphane. “Elza Soares, The Voice of the Millennium.” Pan African Music.
Lal, Kish. “Energy never dies: We look at the legacy of Lisa 'Left Eye' Lopes.” Red Bull Music Academy.
"Con El Diablo En El Cuerpo (Fever)". www.fania.com. Archived from the original on 2019-07-31.
Mitter, Siddharta. Tania Maria Returns to Her Roots. Boston Globe.
Pardillo, Omar. “Celia Cruz: In Her Own Words.” Celia Cruz Foundation.
Pareles, Jon. “La Lupe, a Singer, Is Dead at 53; Known as ‘Queen of Latin Soul.’” The New York Times.
Varela, Jesse. “Graciela: La Primera Dama del Jazz Latino.” Herencia Latina. Retrieved from http://www.herencialatina.com/Graciela_Grillo/Graciela_Grillo_Jesse_Varela.htm
Youngs, Ian. "Left Eye's Sideways Look at Life". BBC News.
Nydia Simone is a Panamanian-American filmmaker, founder and curator with a passion for Afrolatinx and Caribbean stories. Nydia has been working in Hollywood for 10 years and has produced films and television programs. She has worked for ABC, Disney Animation Studios, NBC, and more. Her company, Blactina Media has been featured in the New York Times, Oprah’s Online Magazine, People En Español, Vice, Forbes and more.